The names found in the history of Panjab can be divided into three categories:
- Royal and Trade-Related Names
- Names Found in Religious Scriptures
- Names Found from Travellers
Today, Panjab refers to the region of the five rivers located in the northwest of South Asia. History is inherently connected to the land. Kings may change, tribes continue to evolve, and even religions transform over time. But the land, rivers, and mountains remain.
The land of five rivers, the language of its people, and its historical legacy make Panjab more than just a name-it is a stage in the journey of time. Names have changed in the past, and they may change again in the future. But the rivers will continue to flow, and the land will keep turning the pages of its own history. History will always remain tied to the rivers. It will not migrate with the people who leave, nor will it end with the drawing of new lines on a map.
Important Note:
This list of names is neither complete nor final. Over the 7,000 years of Panjab’s history, many more names must have been used, and even among the names listed below, there may be errors. Panjabis must continue their search. There is a need to strengthen the effort to understand Panjab through its own civilization and people-so that outsiders cannot define us.
Why Do We Need Names?
Before delving into the diversity of Panjab’s names, it’s important to consider why a region needs a name at all.
During the time of the Harappan civilization, about 10% of the world’s population lived between the hills of northern Panjab and the sea of Sindh. Around 5,000 years ago, the areas of present-day Panjab and Sindh were among the most densely populated regions in the world. Yet, in the thousand years from the beginning to the end of the Harappan civilization, only 7 or 8 cities have been discovered. The nearest city to Harappa, called Ganweriwala, was still 280 km away-indicating that most of the population lived in villages. Even today, 5,000 years later, the majority of people in Sindh and Panjab still live in rural areas.
When compared with the present time, it becomes clear that rural communities don’t feel the need for the larger identity of “Panjab” in their daily lives. The need for a name arises when people must interact with outsiders. When Panjabis speak with other Panjabis, they use more localized terms like Malwa, Majha, Pothohar, Hindko, or Puadhi. For one Panjabi to tell another that they are from Panjab while already standing within Panjab would seem absurd.
On the other hand, when interacting with people like the Chinese, Japanese, or Americans, one doesn’t mention Malwa or Pothohar-they use the name Panjab. It’s important to understand that names serve a purpose; they carry information. For example, the name Canada implies European colonial influence, while using the Indigenous root Kanata brings the original inhabitants into the picture-without needing to say it outright.
People in villages don’t typically tell one another that they are Panjabi. Even in communication among nearby villages and cities, there’s rarely a need for a broader regional identity. However, when dealing with traders, religious figures, educators, or travelers from outside, using a common regional name like “Panjab” helps convey information more clearly. Because language, culture, food, customs, and dress are largely similar across the wider region, people tend to agree on a shared identity without deep analysis. This shows that the need for a common, united regional name arises from specific practical reasons. If those reasons can be identified, it becomes easier to estimate which names were likely in regular use.
Today, humanity doesn’t feel the need to tell each other they’re from planet Earth-but if another habitable planet were discovered and communication began with its inhabitants, the name “Earth” would start to be used in that context. Many travelers, invaders, explorers, and seekers have passed through Panjab, from whom we have learned various names. Some of these may have been names for united regions of Panjab, while others referred to smaller areas within it. In this article, we will go on to explore these names in detail and try to understand which ones were widely used and which weren’t.
Understanding why names were used makes it easier to analyze the names themselves. It also reinforces why it’s not enough for a curious person to know only the names-but also to understand where, why, by whom, and for what purpose a name was used. The boundaries of ancient Panjab’s names were not as consistent as today’s political maps. Some names refer to regions that lie outside present-day Panjab, while others refer only to small areas within it.
Some Reflections on Panjab and the Name “Panjab”
Today, Panjab is the name of the region in South Asia known for its five rivers. History is rooted in land. Kings come and go, tribes evolve, and even religions change over time. But the land, rivers, and mountains remain. The name Panjab-associated with the land of five rivers, its people’s language, and its long history-is just one chapter in an ongoing story. Names have changed before, and they may change again in the future. But the rivers will continue to flow, and the land will keep turning the pages of its history.
The name Panjab is said to have been first written by the Moroccan Arab traveller Ibn Battuta around the year 1333 CE in his travelogue. About 200 years later, the name appears as Panjnad in the Ain-i-Akbari. The name Panjab appears again in the biography of Jahangir (1569–1627), known as Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.
After reading in detail, it remains unclear whether Ibn Battuta coined the name Panjab himself or if he heard it locally while in the region. His journey into Panjab began from Multan, which borders the Persian-speaking Iranian provinces of Sistan and Khorasan. Western Panjab has had ties with the Persian language for thousands of years, even before the advent of Islam, during the time of the Zoroastrian (Parsi) people.
There is a Panjabi saying that “every ten koh (roughly 20–30 miles), the dialect changes.” In Middle Persian (Pahlavi), the pronunciation of the number 5 is panj, just like in Panjabi. However, in modern Persian, the flowing pronunciation is pānj. If the word Panjab had originated solely from the Persian language of Ibn Battuta’s time, it should have been Panjab or even Pānjāb – which it is not. In fact, Persian pānj aligns more closely with Hindi pānch than it does with Panjabi panj.
The pronunciation of panj in Panjabi is ancient. Much emphasis is placed on the idea that Panjab comes from Persian. However, linguists are largely silent on comparing panj with the Middle Persian dialect Pahlavi (also known as Parthian). In two-thousand-year-old inscriptions found in Pahlavi, Panjabi words like akkh (eye) and īṭṭ (brick) appear in almost identical form.
Double-toned or stressed-syllable words (known as addhak-based forms) are unique to the Panjabi language and are not found in neighboring languages. The influence of Panjabi on Pahlavi can also be seen and acknowledged. Words like īṭṭ and akkh in Hindi and Urdu become smoother in pronunciation, turning into īnt and ānkh. Similarly, panj becomes pānch or pānj – these are smoother versions, and panj remains the native Panjabi pronunciation.
The claim that panj is Persian in origin is debatable and unproven. It’s likely that Ibn Battuta did not coin the word Panjab himself but heard it from local people. As the Panjabi saying goes: “the dialect changes every ten koh.” The dialect in Eastern Panjab blends into Khariboli (standard Hindi), while the accents of Multani and Western Panjabi naturally align with those of Pashto, Khorasani, and Sistani.
Just because the word āb (meaning water) is used doesn’t mean the entire name Panjab can be attributed entirely to Persian. We shouldn’t wipe our hands clean of Panjabi origins by attributing the whole term to Persian alone.
O Panjab, how can I praise your greatness?
Panjab, the Ancient Civilization of Panjab
One of the oldest civilizations in the world originated on the land of Panjab. (Harappa, the First Bronze Age city) Throughout history, the name of Panjab has changed. The region influenced by Panjabi culture has also evolved. The flow of Panjab’s rivers has changed as well. Change is an undeniable truth. Just as the rivers of Panjab did not alter the land when their course changed, similarly, the changing of Panjab’s name has not altered the Panjabi civilization. For thousands of years, our rivers have been flowing continuously, and the Panjabi civilization has been evolving. Development intertwines the old with the new; in the light of an evolved culture, the old does not seem foreign.
Part 1
Names from trades and political materials
Meluhha
Ancient research reveals that the oldest name for Panjab is Meluhha. This name is found in the civilizations of Assyria, Sumer, and Akkad in Mesopotamia. Today, in regions of Iraq, Oman, and Syria, the name Meluhha is found written 18 times for Panjab. This name appears to have been used for the entire Sindh River valley region (Panjab, Sindh, and the nearby areas of Balochistan, Gujarat, and Rajasthan). Evidence shows that the name Meluhha was consistently used for over 2000 years for the riverine regions of Panjab and Sindh.
Meluhha KI on The rollout of Shu-ilishu’s cylinder seal. Courtesy of the Département des Antiquités Orientales, Musée du tions, Louvre, Paris.
The name Meluhha is derived from the word “Malah” (meaning boatman). Evidence of Meluhha dates back from 4400 years ago (2400 BCE) to 2600 years ago (600 BCE). The last reference to the name Meluhha is found in the writings of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, dated 2600 years ago. After this period, with the rise of Aryan people and the Aryan language in Mesopotamia, the name Meluhha fades and the name “Hind” begins to be used.
(About a hundred years after Ashurbanipal, King Darius (Darius the Great) refers to the land as “Hind” rather than Meluhha, and this will be discussed in detail further.)
After 500 BCE, the name Meluhha as a country name ceased to exist, but it continued to evolve in local languages. It remained in use as a term for the people living in Panjab. Words like Malesh, Meli, Malakh, Mall, Mallah, etc., are evolved forms of Meluhha. In the Sanskrit and Pali scriptures, there is a story of the transformation of the term Malesh from a regional identifier to a pejorative meaning.
Reference: A study of attitudes towards mlecchas and other outsiders in Northern India (c. A.D. 600) Aloka Parasher 1978
Meluhha-Ki
An interesting fact is that in Mesopotamia, the name Meluhha is not used alone but as Meluhha-Ki. While the changing meanings of the term Malesh can be traced in Sanskrit and Pali, the specific term Meluhha-Ki is only found in Punjabi folk traditions. In Panjab, to this day, a boatman is still referred to as Malah, a term used 3000 years ago. Moreover, many village names still end with “Ki,” such as Drauli Bhai Ki, Patto Ki, Maadi Kamboki, Nanoki, and Bhai Ki. The terms Meluhha and Ki are testimonies to the 5000-year-old roots of Punjabi language and culture. These evidences have awaited discovery in the sands of Arabia for thousands of years, waiting for the heirs of Panjab to uncover them.
Click here to read the full description of Maluha
Hindush, Hind, Hindustan
Hind, Hindu, and India were originally names used only for Panjab in ancient history. 2,500 years ago, these names were not used for the entire subcontinent as they are today. In ancient Greek and Persian histories, wherever the words Hindus, Hind, or Indos appear, they refer not to present-day Bharat or India, but only to Panjab. ‘Hind’ was also the name of a province in the Persian Empire. In ancient records, those who wrote about Hind, Hindu, and India were only referring to the old Panjab, not the India shown on today’s map. Over time, the name ‘Hind’ came to be used for the entire region, possibly because the rest of the subcontinent couldn’t establish their own distinct names on par with ‘Hind,’ and the larger area came to be identified under this Panjabi term.
In ancient Iran (Persia), there were three provinces (satrapies) around the Sindhu River. The area from the Kabul valley down to the plains was called Gandhara. Below that, the region corresponding to present-day Panjab was known as Hindush. Further down to the sea, the area that is now the Sindh province was called Satagāu. The common belief that the entire region east of the Sindhu River was called Hind is fundamentally incorrect. In the ruins of Persepolis, the ancient capital of Iran (also called Parsa), around 30,000 clay tablets of Persian records have been discovered. These include 2,500-year-old tax documents, travel records, and more. These handwritten documents are direct evidence from ancient times. The administrative documents related to Panjab are far more reliable than oral claims passed down through generations. What was written back then can still be read today exactly as it was. The entire region east of the Sindhu River was not considered ‘Hind.’ Among the tablets found in Parsa, Hindush is mentioned more frequently than Satagāu and Gandhara. (See the Persepolis Fortification Tablets.) This indicates that the area of present-day western Panjab, located on the Sindhu River, was more influential than the other two provinces.
3 provinces HINDUS, THATAGUS and GANDÂRA, on the east of the river Indus
There is evidence only of Hind, not of Saptsindhu
The flat (Panjabi) region in the middle of the Sindhu River was referred to as Indos by the Greeks, which was simply a translation of the Persian Hindush. This is where the words Hind and India originate in history. Herodotus, the first known historian to document history in terms of chronology and time, wrote in detail about tax collection under the Persian Empire. From him, we learn about the region of Hindush (Hind). During the reign of Emperor Xerxes (also known as Khshayarsha or Xerxes the Great), Herodotus describes the tax system in detail and mentions the existence of three provinces along the Sindhu River. Information from tax records is considered more reliable than general reports. Even from Herodotus, it becomes clear that not all of the land east of the Sindhu River was referred to as Hind.
The name Meluhha appears for the last time in 643 BCE in the inscription of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. After this, a major political shift occurs. Aryan tribes coming from Central Asia gain power in the Iraq-Iran region, and the Achaemenid (Achaemenian) Empire is established. Around 500 BCE, for the first time, the name Hindush (𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁, H-i-du-u-š) appears in the Behistun inscription of the Persian king Darius (Dārayavahush). Interestingly, he refers to the northern region of the Sindhu River as Gandhara in the Aryan (Old Persian) script. But in the older Mesopotamian Akkadian script, he uses Para-uparisaina, which literally means ‘the land beyond the Hindu Kush.’ The Behistun inscription reveals that with the rise of Aryan dominance, not only was the name Meluhha changed to Hind for Panjab, but even Para-uparisaina began to be known as Gandhara.
Before the advent of Islam, the ancient Persians (from present-day Uzbekistan to Iraq) considered fire, water, and air to be sacred. They worshipped deities such as Indra, Varuna, and Mitra. Above these deities, they believed in a supreme god named Ahura Mazda (meaning “Great Asura”). The western Parsis (Zoroastrians) even referred to themselves as Asuras. In today’s context, the terms Asura and Deva can be viewed as representing two major sects of the Aryan people. The Vedic tradition focused on the Devas, while those who believed in the supreme god Ahura Mazda—beyond the Vedic gods—were identified as Asuras.
It is also important to discuss here that the Iranian (Aryan) people had no difficulty in pronouncing the “s” sound. Their capital city was named Susa, which contains two “s” sounds. Further details on this subject can be read at the link provided. Read about the exchange of Haha and Sassa and Panjabi.
After Emperor Darius, the tomb of Xerxes (Khashayarsha) also depicts soldiers from the three provinces of the Indus River. About 700–800 years after the Achaemenid Empire, the Sasanian emperor of Iran, Shapur I, recorded the name of Panjab as Hindistan (hndstn) in his inscription at Ka’ba-ye Zartosht. During the time of Shapur I, Panjab is referred to as the entire Hindustan. Here, the entire plains region is called Hindistan. Roman records also mention Shapur’s rule over Panjab. Shapur never ruled the rest of India. For the entire hilly region of Panjab, Shapur used the name Kushan-shah. It appears that the Kushans might have been tax collectors from this region, which is likely why he referred to the area of rule as Kushan-shah.
It is worth noting that in Iran, the term Satan (Hindistan) appears, whereas in Rajasthan, the term is Sthān. However, in the divine Vedic texts, Satan is used, while in the Asura scripture Zend Avesta, instead of tatta, the word thatha is used, and sthan is also found. This suggests that as spoken languages, the Asuras and Devas were not very different. The name Rajasthan comes from the sthan used in the Asura Zend Avesta, but Shapur’s Hindistan derives from the Santān of the Vedas.
The difference between tatta (Vedic) and thattha (Iranian) does not end there. In the Vedas, Mitra is a deity, while in the city of Mathura, we see the use of thattha (Iranian), though the ruling empire there is referred to as Mitra (Vedic). Interestingly, in the Asura text Zend Avesta, Mitra is written as Mithra. No expert explains why, according to the texts, the city name Mathura is not instead Mitra. The difference between the consonants ‘haha’ (h) and ‘sassa’ (s) — like the difference between tatta and thattha — was also not due to Iranian people being unable to pronounce them. Further discussion on h and s can be read at this link.
The names Hindos, Hind, and Hindustan used for Panjab appear across an 800-year interval among the Asura Aryans. These references also include mentions of wars, trade, and taxation. Due to these factors, it can be said that the name Hind for Panjab was likely used by political and commercial communities.
Xerxes I tomb, Hindush soldier circa 480 BCE
Fig 1 Ancient Panjabi person at Darius 1st tomb, Hindush inscribed in Egyptian script
https://parthiansources.com/texts/skz/skz-3/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindush#cite_note-9
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-satrapies
https://panjabhistory.com/hind-sindh/
Part 2
Names from Religious literature
Hodu (הֹדּוּ)
The name Hodu (הֹדּוּ) for Panjab appears in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Esther, chapters 1:1 and 8:9. It is written that the Persian (Iranian) king Khshayarsha (خشایارشا) — known in Greek as Ahasuerus — ruled over an empire stretching from Hodu (Panjab) to Kush (Ethiopia), encompassing 127 provinces.
Sapta-Sindhu, Hapta-Hindu (هَپته هِندو) (𐬵𐬀𐬞𐬙𐬀 𐬵𐬌𐬧𐬛 )
Sapta-Sindhu and Hapta-Hindu are two versions of the same name used in two dialects of one language, carrying the same meaning. Therefore, it is necessary to study them together in the same context.
From the archaeological layers of Mesopotamia, it becomes evident that after the Indo-Aryans rose to political power in the 6th century BCE, the term Hind began to replace the older name Meluhha.
These names — Sapta-Sindhu and Hapta-Hindu — are found in religious scriptures, and the discussion could end there. However, three more major aspects arise that require further consideration:
- What is the difference between ‘ha’ (ਹ) and ‘sa’ (ਸ), and why does it exist?
- If the term refers to “seven rivers,” then which seven rivers are they?
- Where could these two names have been used, and is there any evidence of their practical application?
Who were the Aryas? Read the link.
In one dialect of the early Arya language, it was called Hind, and in another, Sindh. Just like in Panjabi, for “ours” both “sada” and “hada” are used. In Panjabi, ‘s’ and ‘h’ are still interchanged today, but this is not the case in Persian and Hindi. (For details on the interchange of ‘s’ and ‘h’, read at this link.)
These names are found in both ancient Arya texts, the Rigveda and the Zend-Avesta. The Rigveda and Zend-Avesta are complementary to each other. They exist as two dialects of the same now-extinct language. The meter, verse structure, Gayatri mantra, and deities are the same. Some verses are exactly identical. Both traditions have the custom of learning and memorizing by speaking rather than writing. Neither text mentions Panjab explicitly, but both consider Panjab as their own land. In fact, in the Zend-Avesta, Panjab is described as one of the sixteen lands created by the god of the Asur Aryas.
Referance Read here
Coins and inscriptions of the three major empires and many kings of the Asur Aryans who followed the Zend Avesta are found in western Panjab. It appears that the famous ancient city of Takshila in Panjab was also established by them. Even today, in Takshila, the Jandial temple of the Zend Avesta followers can be seen. The writers who came with Alexander have described the Asur Aryan customs practiced in Panjab. Traditions like cleaning a place with the skin of a goat, purifying the air by burning incense, and tying a protective thread on small children are mentioned in the Avesta, but not in the Vedas. From inscriptions, coins, traditions, and ancient historical notes, it is evident that the Avesta followers were once part of the Panjabi cultural fabric. It is significant that the Zend Avesta followers call it Haptahindu, while the Rigveda followers call it Saptsindhu. Ignoring one and speaking only of the other is only half the truth.
Today’s Rigveda describes the seven rivers starting from the Sindh and going up to the lost Sarasvati. The disputed Sarasvati is also described as the third hidden river at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna. According to information gathered from local people in the 10th century, Al-Biruni even mentioned a river named Sarasvati flowing into the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. On the other hand, details in the Zend Avesta state that the Helmand River in Afghanistan is the real Sarasvati. By changing the pronunciation of ‘Haha’ and ‘Sassa’ dialects, they wrote it as ‘Harahvaiti.’ The region of Harahvaiti was also the name of a tax-paying province in the Iranian Harkshamanish Empire, and there are written records of it dating back 2,500 years—not just oral tradition. The seven rivers mentioned in the Avesta start from the Kabul River and extend to the Sutlej. According to the Avesta, Sarasvati is the Helmand River outside the Haptahindu region; Sarasvati is not a lost or dried-up river.
In 1917, an article appeared in the Times Press Bombay, pages S 201-210, referencing Frederick Spiegel, stating that Spiegel found a commentary written on the Avesta in the second or third century in the Pahlavi language (Middle Persian). In it, the writer himself questions and answers why there are only five or six rivers in Panjab, but seven (Haptahindu) are mentioned in their religious book. The commentator further writes that Panjab is divided into seven different parts, each ruled by separate independent kingdoms. Because there were seven kingdoms, it was called Haptahindu.
Page 208 of Reference They said: ” Avash hapt-Hindukânih hanâ figh sar-khudâ haft ait,” i.e., it is called Hapt-Hindu, because there are seven rulers over it. Possibly there were seven rulers ruling over the land of the Indus at the time.
The same thing is also written by the Greek historian Arrian (in Chapter II), that before Alexander left Panjab, he made King Porus the Maharaja over the seven kings of Panjab and 2,000 settlements (villages, towns). This important indication has been overlooked by every historian. We have two historical references mentioning the seven local kingdoms functioning in Panjab. The seven sub-regions could also be the reason for using the name Des Panjab.
One estimate could be that behind the name Saptasindhu or Haptahindu lies the existence of seven small regions within Panjab instead of just rivers. This is because the seventh river was either a seasonal flow or an ancient course of the Sutlej before the arrival of the Arias. The Rigved’s companion text, Zend-Avesta, does not mention any river to the east of the Sutlej.
Rivers of Zend Avesta
There is no concrete evidence outside religious texts for the names Saptasindhu and Haptahindu. It cannot be stated with certainty that everyone in present-day Panjab used these names. Like Haptahindu and Saptasindhu, in Buddhist and Jain ascetic traditions, the term Jambudweep appears in literature as a large unit for South Asia. Buddhists and Jain followers used Jambudweep to teach their doctrines. This does not mean the name was also used by locals and traders. The purpose of this name was to convey a religious message. Those who were not Buddhists did not necessarily use the term Jambudweep.
Similarly, there is no evidence of any kingdom named after Saptasindhu or Haptahindu, which would have collected taxes as a single unit from the region of seven rivers, had any local administrative system, or had any power strong enough to establish an independent identity for the whole area. No coin bearing the name Haptahindu or Saptasindhu has ever been found. Nor has any inscription, seal, or tablet in any language been discovered mentioning this name like those found for Meluhha.
SaptSindhu and HaptaHindu names do not have any solid evidence outside of religious texts. It cannot be said with certainty that everyone used these names like the modern name of Panjab. Names like HaptaHindu and SaptSindhu appear in Buddhist and Jain traditions, where Jambudvipa refers to a large unit for South Asia. Buddhists and Jains used Jambudvipa to teach their doctrines. This does not mean that this name was also used by local people or traders. The purpose of this name was to convey a religious message. Those who were not Buddhists did not have the name Jambudvipa.
Just like Jambudvipa, no kingdom is found with the name SaptSindhu or HaptaHindu that collected taxes as a single unit from the region of seven rivers, nor is there any local governance or a powerful ruler who gave a unified identity to the entire region. No coin with the name HaptaHindu or SaptSindhu has been found. Neither has any inscription, seal, or plate in any language been found like Mohenjo-daro.
From the available documents, it is not proven that SaptSindhu or HaptaHindu was ever a very popular name, especially when compared equally with Mohenjo-daro. There is plenty of evidence for Hind and Sindh alone. Like Jambudvipa, both Aryan groups continued to use SaptSindhu and HaptaHindu to give their philosophical message, which is also evidenced by Spiegel’s discovery of Pahlavi. But having a regional identity like today’s Panjab is doubtful. Instead of understanding HaptaHindu and SaptSindhu as Panjab, they should be seen like how Kerala is called ‘God’s own country,’ India is called the ‘Golden Bird,’ or Panjab is called the ‘bread basket.’
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avestan_geography
India in tlte Avesta oj the Parsis page 208
Avesta VENDIDAD Fargard.1 16 sixteen perfect lands created by Ahura Mazda
Who were the Aryans? https://panjabhistory.com/arya/
Bārta (Bhārta, Eastern Panjab)
The name Bārta appears in the earliest Aryan text, the Rigveda. It was used to refer to a tribe living east of the Ravi River, especially beyond the Sutlej. The name of the region itself is also mentioned as Bārta. It’s important to note that Bārta is spelled with a ‘b’ (babbā) and not a ‘bh’ (bhabbā).
Today, there’s an effort to rename the country from India to Bhārat. In reality, it’s a shift from an old name in Western Panjab to a more popular name from Eastern Panjab. The rest of the country doesn’t share a historical connection to this new name—only religious or emotional associations. Just as Bhārat originally referred to a small region, many other regions in the same scripture had their own distinct names. Similar to how Hind eventually became the name for the whole subcontinent, Bhārat is now being extended in the same way.
Interestingly, the Battle of Ten Kings, involving the Bārta tribe on the Ravi River, is mentioned in both the Rigveda and the Zend Avesta. Ancient Panjab was home to both Vedic and Avestan tribes. Both texts reference this battle and each claims victory. Both also present the sage Vashishtha as being on their respective side.
Bāhīk Country, Madra Country, and Arhaṭṭa
Baheek, Madra, and Arhaṭṭa are regional names in Panjab that appear in the Mahābhārata. Just as today we have regions like Mājha, Pothohār, and Rachnā Doāb, these names represented territories in ancient times. The Karna Parva of the Mahābhārata and other ancient texts provide considerable detail about these regions, and the context in which the names are used makes them even more intriguing. You can read the details here.
It’s worth noting that before writing historical narratives, original sources are often not studied. Instead, it has become common to treat translations, commentaries, annotations, and further interpretations built upon those as factual. This approach tends to close the door on fresh, contemporary thinking. The renowned Sanskrit scholar Michael Witzel explains that the “B” sound (babba) is a native phoneme in Panjab, while the “V” sound (vavva) came with the Aryans. Under the influence of the Panjabi language, the translation often uses “Baheek”, though the original source includes both Baheek and Vaheek.
Just like Baheek, many words in spoken Panjabi use the “B” sound, but when written, “V” is used. For example, the author himself pronounces “varatiā” (used) as “baratiā”. Similarly, “Vaisākhī” and “Vailṇā” in writing are pronounced as “Basākhī” and “Belṇā” in speech.
In Classical Sanskrit, the word “Baheek” means outsider or foreigner. In the Mahābhārata, Karna Parva, Chapter 45, the Baheek people are even referred to as the filth of the earth and thieves. Just as the ancient ancestral homeland of the Aryans is described in the concept of Airyanem Vaejah (in Avestan tradition), a similar idea of Āryāvarta appears in Indian scriptures. It is important to note that Āryāvarta does not include the culturally rich region of Panjab. The Baudhāyana text declares the land of the five rivers (Panjab) as impure for the people of Āryāvarta.
The land of Madra is generally understood to be the region of Mājha, Jhang–Sialkot. In the Karna Parva of the Mahābhārata, there are several derogatory remarks about Madra and strong criticism directed at Baheek, Madra, and Aratta.
Aratta Desh refers to the region inhabited by the Aratta people. The term Aratta has also been interpreted to mean Jatt. In the Mahābhārata, Aratta is described as lowly and inferior. Further details about this can also be found in the Karna Parva of the Mahābhārata.
An interesting fact is that the Roman trade document Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written between the 1st and 3rd centuries, mentions riverine trade between the Roman Empire and Panjab. In this document, Panjab is referred to as Aratrioi, which appears to be the Roman translation of Aratta.
The regions of Baheek, Aratta, and Madra are also mentioned in Jain, Buddhist, and Sikh texts. The mention of Aratrioi suggests that this name was used even outside the Indian subcontinent. From this, we can say that these names were not merely imaginary but were indeed in use in some form.
Further reading: https://panjabhistory.com/karanparv/
Panchanad
The name Panchanad is found in the Mahabharata, classical Sanskrit, and Jain scriptures. Panchanad refers to the region of the five rivers, and when the five rivers are mentioned, the Sindh river is written separately. However, Sindh is also a Punjabi river. The reason for distinguishing Sindh separately is itself a subject for research.
In Lahindey Panjab, the place where the waters of all the rivers merge to form the Sindh river is called Panjnad. However, including the Sindh, there are six rivers. For some reason, even though the Sindh is in Panjab, it is excluded from the count. Panjnad is the Punjabi word’s equivalent of the Greek-Roman term Pentapotamiai. The word “Panch” is not used in Panjabi. From around 1800 to 2200 years ago, the Pahlavi people lived in the northwest of Panjab. They had long political, social, and religious relations with the people of Panjab, and some writings in their language and script survived the test of time and can still be read today. Interestingly, in the 2000-year-old Pahlavi language, the pronunciation of the number 5 is “panj,” just like in Panjabi, not “paanch” (Hindi) or “paanz” (Persian). The Pahlavi word for brick, “itt,” is very similar to the Panjabi word. The Panjabi word “pahlwan” (wrestler) comes from “pahlav” + “balwan” (strong). Social exchange is always mutual; it is never the case that language and culture flow in only one direction.
Your analysis is quite insightful. Due to Panjab’s hot, humid climate and changing river courses, much ancient physical evidence has not survived. However, through the method of deduction, we can extract certain facts from neighbouring cultures and texts. Compared to Pahlavi and Gandhari Prakrit, the Sanskrit language does not offer very ancient evidence; Pali texts themselves are relatively later than Sanskrit sources. Ancient evidence consistently shows that there were five rivers in Punjab. Even in Gandhari Prakrit and Pali, the pronunciation remains “panj” for five. Various source analyses suggest that the word “panj” (five) is at least 2200 years old, and likely even older. The term “Panchanad” is essentially the Sanskritized form of “Panjnad”, and the vernacular Panjabi word “Panjnad” is still widely used today.
About 200 years after Ibn Battuta, the Ain-i-Akbari mentions the term Panjnad, which is a mixed or hybrid word. Panj is from Panjab or Panjabi, while nad is from Sanskrit. The need to use the name of a large geographical unit arose for the political, administrative, and tax (such as jizya) collecting elites (chaudharies). The use of Panjnad during Akbar’s time indicates that Panjab had not yet been fully established as a cohesive and recognised political entity among the respectable communities.
Part 3
Names from travellers
Pītu
Between 631 and 643 CE, a Chinese traveler named Hiun Tsang visited Panjab. He reported that beyond the hills of Pothohar lies the country called Takk. In his travelogue, he wrote that east of Takk, beyond the river, is the land of Pītu. The name Pītu is believed to correspond to the present-day Doab and Malwa regions. Other sources remain silent about the name Pītu, and little is known about its usage or extent of territory.
Quote: “AfTER they had crossed the river, there was a country named Pe-too?, where Buddhism was very flourishing, and (the monks) studied both the mahayana and hinayâna.” Page 41 A-Record-Of-Buddhistic-Kingdoms
The earliest translations contain very little information, but later translators’ notes and commentaries often link them with many fabricated or distorted details. For those curious about Panjab’s history, it is crucial to study the original sources or the earliest printed books.
The name Pītu is quite different from common words. Hiuen Tsang must have heard this name directly from the local people; otherwise, there would be no reason for him to use it.
Hiouen-Thsang in India1956 print
Shendu (身毒)
Around 2120 years ago, in 120 BCE, the Chinese Han dynasty emperor Wu (140–87 BCE) sent an envoy named Zhang Qian, who referred to the Panjab region as Shendu. This name appears to be a phonetic or root-based Chinese rendering of the word Sindhu, used for the Sindh basin region.
Emperor Wu aimed to expand trade and political relations with the western regions of his empire. To achieve this, he sent Zhang Qian to gather detailed information about the territories located west of the Han domain. Zhang Qian set out with the intention of reaching Panjab, but due to certain circumstances, he was unable to go beyond Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan).
Due to circumstances, Zhang Qian had to rely on the accounts of the people of Bactria (Balkh) to describe the surrounding regions. Based on their information, he wrote that several thousand li south of Balkh lies the country of Shiyindu (Panjab). Here too, as in many other ancient sources, Shiyindu (Sindh) refers specifically to Panjab, not to the entirety of India. He noted that the capital of this land is situated on the Sindhu (Indus) River. The people of Shiyindu are similar to those in Bactria and engage in the same kind of agriculture. He described Shiyindu as a hot and fertile region. According to his account, the people some warriors go to battle mounted on elephants.
The similarity noted by envoy Zhang Qian between the people of Panjab and those of Bactria (Balkh) deserves careful attention. This was a time before the arrival of Turanian (Turkic) tribes into the Bactrian region, meaning the inhabitants were quite different from today’s inhabitants. Two centuries before Zhang Qian, details of Alexander’s invasion of Bactria indicate that Panjabi people had joined Bessus, the Bactrian satrap, in the famous Battle of Gaugamela against the Greeks. After losing at Gaugamela, Bessus continued to resist Alexander in the regions of Bactria and Samarkand. These accounts reveal that Bessus’s main support came from the Scythian Massagetae (the “Great Jats”) tribe. The resemblance Zhang Qian observed between the people of Panjab and those of Bactria may thus be due to the widespread presence of the Massagetae tribe stretching from northern Panjab all the way to present-day Kazakhstan.
(ਲੀ, Li was a Chinese unit to measure distance)
Definitions of Tatbhav and Tatsam Words
https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/4sub8/entry-5445.html#chapter-7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qian
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessus
Jibin (Northern Panjab)
The name Jibin is found in Buddhist literature for Northern Panjab. It was a name used by Buddhist missionaries for a part of Panjab. It does not have a direct connection to the people of Panjab. The name was used by the Chinese to distinguish Buddhist monks from Panjab from those of other regions.
In China, one well-known name used for Panjab in Buddhist literature translated from Gāndhārī Prakrit is Jibin. The region of Jibin is estimated to have extended from Taxila and the hills above Mānkiāl (Rawalpindi) up to the Swat Valley.
Mahayana Buddhism expert Charles Willemen presents an important fact — that up until the 3rd or 4th century CE, the Buddhist literature that reached China was not in Pali or Sanskrit. Rather, during that time, the sole lingua franca of Buddhism was Gāndhārī Prakrit, which was also the spoken language of the people of all the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Reverse translation of ancient texts still found in Chinese today reveals that they were originally translated from Gāndhārī Prakrit into Chinese. Contrary to popular belief, archaeological evidence of Pali appears much later, and it is Gāndhārī Prakrit that emerges as the earliest Buddhist language. In Panjab, the edicts of King Devānampiya (Ashoka) and Kaniṣka are also written in Gāndhārī Prakrit. The term Gāndhārī Prakrit refers to an ancient dialect, whose forms were in fact the older speech patterns of Panjab. Gāndhārī represents one of the stages in the development of Panjabi. In Ashoka’s Gāndhārī Prakrit edict at Shahbazgarhi, distinctly Panjabi words such as ḍūḍā (1.5), dhī (daughter), aṭh (eight), etc., can be found. The evidence of the Panjabi language preserved through Gāndhārī Prakrit is undoubtedly centuries older than anything found in Sanskrit or Pali.
The name Jibin is also found in ancient Buddhist texts. Every ancient fact reveals many other insights. For example, the language of Panjab — Gāndhārī Prakrit — was in fact the medium through which Buddhism was spread, and Panjabi Buddhist monks played a major role in carrying Buddhism to China.
Jibin is a compound word formed from two Chinese terms. Ji means “fold of a garment” (or robe), and bin means “traveler” or “visitor.” So, the meaning becomes: “the land from where monks come, wrapping themselves in robes, to spread Buddhism” — that is Jibin desh. Similarly, the earlier name for Panjab, Meluhha, is believed to have been derived from malāhā̃ (sailors or boatmen).
The language of Panjab was not Sanskrit or Pali, but Gāndhārī. (In english)
Charles Williemen full lecture: https://youtu.be/mO2qsxmJCBA
Udihana
The name Udihana is found in Buddhist literature. It was used for the Panjab foothill regions stretching from Ropar to the Swat Valley. The literal meaning of Udihana is garden or orchard. Various texts also suggest that Udihana included areas such as Kashmir, Mankial (near Rawalpindi), and Pachaur.
Uddiyana was a center of Buddhism. Its mention is found in the fifth century by Fa-Hien. In the ninth century, the Korean Buddhist monk Hyecho also described the Chitral region as part of Uddiyana. From the eighth to the eleventh century, one of the names of the Hindu Shahi or Kabul Shahi kings who ruled parts of Panjab was Udisaha or Odisaha. This was because they were inhabitants of the Uddi people of the Uddiyana region, similar to how the people of Malwa are called Malwai.
Pāṇini used the related name “Udīcya” in Sanskrit as well. Pāṇini himself was a native of the Udīcya region.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddiyana read for possible locations
Paśācha
Pasācha was an ancient region located in northwestern Panjab. In Indian folk tradition, pasācha is also associated with spirits or ghosts, which likely traces back to this very region. The Paśāchī language is considered one of the evolutionary stages in the development of modern Panjabi. Specifically, its influence is said to be visible in the western dialects of Panjabi, such as Hindko and Pothohari. Pasācha is also mentioned in Buddhist literature. This helps us infer that Pasācha likely existed north of Pothohar. Ancient regions rarely had fixed boundaries. Panjab’s history spans thousands of years—over such a long period, people move back and forth, and interpretations also vary depending on the writer’s understanding. The Kashmir region might have been part of it too, but we cannot say with certainty what the exact boundaries of Pasācha were.
In Sanskrit literature, like Madra, Bahika, and Aratta, Pasācha too was heavily criticised. In both Sanskrit and Pali, the words bhūta (spirit) and pasācha (ghost) are treated as nearly identical. The Paśāchī language was also referred to as the language of demons (rākṣasa). Seeing such criticism coming from the Gangetic regions, it appears likely that these too were Panjabi people.
